The great translators of history offer methods, principles, and insights that guide us even today. This guide introduces you to classical and modern translation theory and shows how you can apply these ideas in your own work.
Why Learn from the Old Masters
Cicero, Horace, St. Jerome, Dryden, Schleiermacher, and others laid the foundations of translation theory. Their work remains relevant because it addresses challenges every translator faces: conveying meaning, balancing form and function, and writing for readers. By studying them, you gain frameworks to guide your decisions and build your personal translation philosophy.
Cicero: Sense-for-Sense Translation
Cicero (106-43 BC) emphasized that a translator should be an “orator” rather than a mere “interpreter,”. Instead of word-for-word fidelity, he focused on capturing the original intent. For CIcero, the translator’s goal should be trying to capture the spirit, tone, and persuasive power of the original text.
Learn more: How to Translate Like Cicero
Horace: Balancing Creativity with Fidelity
Horace (65–8 BC) taught that translation requires both skill and taste. Translators should respect the original’s meaning while adapting style, tone, and decorum to fit the target audience. The key is balancing creativity with responsibility.
Read more: How to Translate Like Horace
St. Jerome: Translation Ethics
St. Jerome’s (347–420) work shows that translation is a moral act. Fidelity to the original must meet the audience’s needs. Ethical translation involves preserving intent, emotional weight, and cultural meaning without distortion.
Read more: How to Translate Like St. Jerome
Martin Luther: Translating for the Common Reader
Martin Luther (1483–1546) demonstrated the power of plain language. Translators must make texts understandable to ordinary readers while preserving depth and nuance.
Read more: How to Translate Like Martin Luther
Etienne Dolet: The Five Golden Rules of Translation
Etienne Dolet (1509–1546) codified practical principles that remain surprisingly relevant. His “Five Golden Rules” guide translators to maintain clarity, fidelity, and stylistic elegance. Dolet emphasized that a translation should:
- Fully understand the original text before translating.
- Preserve the sense and meaning, not just the words.
- Respect the style and tone of the original author.
- Adapt expressions where literal translation would confuse the reader.
- Revise and refine the translation until it reads naturally.
Read more: How to Translate Like Etienne Dolet
Dryden: The Three Modes of Translation
John Dryden’s (1631–1700) framework helps translators decide how closely to follow the source text. Metaphrase suits technical or legal texts, paraphrase balances sense and readability, and imitation allows creative adaptation for literary or performative works.
Read more: How to Translate Like Dryden
Alexander Fraser Tytler: The Three Universal Laws of Translation
Alexander Fraser Tytler’s (1747–1813) translation laws stress that translations must fully convey the original ideas, maintain the author’s style, and read naturally in the target language.
Read more: How to Translate Like Alexander Fraser Tytler
Schleiermacher: Foreignization vs. Domestication
Schleiermacher (1768–1834) distinguished between making the text read naturally for the target audience (domestication) or preserving its foreignness to expose the reader to the source culture (foreignization).
Read more: How to Translate Like Schleiermacher
Yan Fu: Faithfulness, Expressiveness, and Elegance
Yan Fu (1854–1921) emphasized three intertwined principles: faithfulness to the original’s meaning, expressiveness for readability, and elegance for literary quality. Translators today can use this triad to maintain intellectual and aesthetic integrity.
Read more: How to Translate Like Yan Fu
Jakobson: Translation Across Languages, Media, and Signs
Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) reminds translators to consider context, semiotics, and intermedia translation. Words are just one layer—visual, auditory, and symbolic elements also carry meaning that requires interpretation.
Read more: How to Translate Like Roman Jakobson
Nida: Dynamic Equivalence for Modern Communication
Eugene Nida’s (1914–2011) dynamic equivalence shifts focus from literal words to intended impact. The translator aims to reproduce the same effect in the target language, accounting for cultural and contextual differences.
Read more: How to Translate Like Eugene Nida
Building Your Own Translation Philosophy
Studying these masters shows that translation is never just mechanical. Every text, audience, and context demands judgment, creativity, and cultural insight. Modern translators can combine principles from multiple masters, adapt them to their projects, and develop a personal philosophy that honors both the source text and its new readers.
